Hollow fiber membrane element and methods of making same

ABSTRACT

A membrane element consisting of a hollow fiber stack (HF stack) comprising a plurality of substantially equally spaced hollow fibers (HFs) comprising multiple alternate rows of HFs comprising first ends extending through and between contact structures comprising solid thermoset material, each HF consisting of a hydrophilic semipermeable membrane defining an elongated lumen, each HF comprising a portion that extends from one contact structure to an opposed contact structure, wherein the HFs in alternate rows are aligned with the spaces in adjacent rows, forming a hexagonal pattern comprising repeating adjacent and/overlapping hexagons, wherein each hexagon comprises a central hollow fiber (central HF) surrounded by six immediately adjacent HFs defining a hexagonal perimeter comprising six sides, the six immediately adjacent HFs being substantially equally spaced from one another and substantially equally spaced from the central hollow fiber, wherein the spacing is adapted to maintain a Reynolds&#39; number of about 3000 or more, and wherein the hydrophilic semipermeable membrane is adapted to achieve salt rejection of 98.5% or more and exhibits a surface tension of 35 dynes/cm or more.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims the benefit of U.S. ProvisionalApplication Ser. No. 61/765,268 filed Feb. 15, 2013, and is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/768,228, also filedFeb. 15, 2013 (abandoned). The present application incorporatesprinciples published in United States Publication Number 2011/0044824,published Feb. 24, 2011, which issued on Oct. 1, 2013 as U.S. Pat. No.8,545,701 the full text of which is incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present application provides a unique hollow fiber (HF) or tubularsemipermeable membrane element (hereafter “HF membrane element”),apparati comprising the HF membrane element, and methods for making theHF membrane element and apparatus.

BACKGROUND

Osmosis has been used to treat industrial wastewaters, to concentratelandfill leachate, and to treat liquid foods in the food industry withlow salinity content. Recent developments in material science also haveallowed the use of osmosis in controlled drug release and in dialysis.

Compared to other industrial separation processes, osmosis has theadvantage of operating at low to no hydraulic pressure; rejecting a widerange of contaminants; possibly having a lower membrane foulingpropensity; and, using relatively simple, basic equipment.

Attempts have been made to use osmosis to generate power, but withlimited success. One problem lies in the design of conventionalsemipermeable membrane elements, known commercially as modules orvessels. Currently available semipermeable membrane elements comprisetubular cylinders with relatively small bores, typically around 200 mm(8 inches) or less. A typical length of the currently availablesemipermeable membrane elements is only from about 1000-1500 mm.

Larger scale osmosis plants than those currently in existence, such aslarge scale power generation plants, would handle massive quantities ofbrine and produce large in-situ changes in flow rate within plant cells.Conventional osmosis hollow fiber or spiral wound membrane modules mightbe suitable for very small power generation applications and researchand development work, but would not be efficient for use in large scaleosmotic plants. First of all, a large scale osmotic process wouldcomprise multiple cells and would require the use of hundreds ofthousands, if not millions, of these relatively small conventionalsemipermeable membranes. Secondly, if such a massive number ofconventional semipermeable membrane elements were used in a large scaleosmotic process, the result would be an excessive pressure drop thatwould seriously impact plant efficiency and complicate plant operationand cost of maintenance.

More efficient semipermeable membrane elements are needed for use indesigning large scale osmosis plants.

BRIEF SUMMARY

In one embodiment, the application provides a membrane elementcomprising:

-   -   a hollow fiber (HF) stack comprising a plurality of loosely        packed hollow fibers (HFs) comprising first ends extending        through one contact structure and opposed ends extending through        an opposed contact structure, each HF comprising an elongated        lumen extending between the one contact structure and the        opposed contact structure and comprising a hydrophilic        semipermeable membrane adapted to achieve salt rejection of        98.5% or more and exhibiting a surface tension of 35 dynes/cm or        more;    -   the membrane element being adapted to be encased in a frame and        submersed in a first fluid and for induced osmosis between        lumens of the plurality of loosely packed HFs and the first        fluid, the membrane element having sufficient mechanical        integrity when encased in the frame and submersed in the first        fluid to sustain turbulence flow across and along surfaces of        the plurality of loosely packed HFs at a Reynolds' Number of        about 3,000 or more and to maintain said mechanical integrity at        feed pumping pressures of 30 bars or higher.

In one embodiment, the application provides a membrane elementcomprising:

-   -   an array comprising a plurality of pairs of hollow fiber panels        comprising a rectangular frame comprising one pair of opposed        edges comprising a header and an opposed header defining opposed        parallel edges of the rectangular frame, the header and opposed        header having a longitudinal axis and comprising a fluid conduit        therethrough along the longitudinal axis, wherein respective        ends of the header and the opposed header mechanically        communicate with respective ends of a support and an opposed        support to form another pair of opposed parallel edges of the        rectangular frame oriented substantially perpendicular to the        one pair of opposed parallel edges, thereby forming the        rectangular frame;    -   the hollow fiber panels comprising the membrane element        comprising a hollow fiber (HF) stack comprising a plurality of        loosely packed hollow fibers (HFs) comprising first ends        extending through one contact structure and opposed ends        extending through an opposed contact structure, each HF        comprising an elongated lumen extending between the one contact        structure and the opposed contact structure, wherein the first        ends of the plurality of loosely packed HFs fluidly communicate        with the fluid conduit through the header and the opposed ends        of the plurality of loosely packed HFs fluidly communicate with        the fluid conduit through the opposed header;    -   the hydrophilic semipermeable membranes being adapted to achieve        salt rejection of 98.5% or more and exhibiting a surface tension        of 35 dynes/cm or more;    -   the hollow fiber panels being adapted to be submersed in a first        fluid and to retain in said first fluid the plurality of loosely        packed hollow fibers and to maintain: (a) osmotic communication        between lumens of the plurality of hollow fibers and the first        fluid; (b) fluid communication of a second fluid between the        lumens of the plurality of hollow fibers and any adjacent        panels; and (c) turbulence flow across and along surfaces of the        hollow fiber membranes at a Reynolds Number of 3,000 or more;    -   the plurality of loosely packed hollow fibers in one hollow        fiber panel in the pair being oriented perpendicular to the        plurality of hollow fibers of the other hollow fiber panel in        the pair.

In one embodiment, the application provides a method of making amembrane element comprising:

-   -   a. providing a plurality of detachable spacer structures having        given dimensions;    -   b. placing one or more first spacer structures on an HF assembly        platform;    -   c. extending a first row of first HFs with first spaces        therebetween over the one or more first spacer structures        aligned with the longitudinal axis of the HF assembly platform,        forming a first longitudinal row of first HFs, the first spaces        having a width effective according to flow dynamic calculations        to maintain turbulence flow across and along surfaces of the        hollow fiber membranes at a Reynolds Number of 3,000 or more;    -   d. placing one or more second spacer structures having the given        dimensions over the first row of HFs aligned with the one or        more first spacer structures;    -   e. extending an adjacent row of HFs with second spaces        therebetween across the one or more second spacer structures        aligned with the longitudinal axis of the HF assembly platform;    -   f. repeating (d)-(e) with additional rows of HFs and spacer        structures, forming a stack of alternating rows of HFs and        intervening spacer structures, the stack having a desired        height, wherein vertically aligned adjacent surfaces of the        stacked spacer structures define potting chambers at opposed        ends of the HFs, the potting chambers defining an inner surface        having predetermined dimensions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The application will be better understood with reference to thedrawings. Where possible, like elements contain like numerals:

FIG. 1 is a cross section through a plurality of vertical hollow fibersand one support member of a panel.

FIG. 1A is a perspective view of an individual hollow fiber.

FIG. 2 is perspective view of a pair of panels comprisingperpendicularly oriented hollow fibers.

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an array for use in a power train, thearray comprising a plurality of alternating perpendicularly orientedpairs of panels.

FIG. 3A is an exploded view of panels from the array of FIG. 3.

FIG. 3A-1 is a frontal view of a vertical fiber panel in a power train.

FIG. 3A-2 is a side view illustrating fluid flow across the array ofFIG. 3A-1.

FIG. 3B is an exploded view of panels from a desalination array.

FIG. 3C is a perspective view of a desalination array.

FIG. 3D is a cross-section of a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) frame fora hollow fiber panel.

FIG. 3E is a cross-section of a steel frame or FRP for a hollow fiberpanel

FIG. 3F is a cutaway/transparent frame perspective view of a panel 12(FIG. 2) comprising the header 16 and an adjacent header 26 (FIG. 2).

FIG. 3G is a perspective view of a vertical baffle and a horizontalbaffle.

FIG. 4 is a cross section through a plurality of conventionally packedhollow fibers.

FIG. 5 is a cross section through of a plurality of loosely packedhollow fibers.

FIG. 6 is a frontal view of a rectangular vessel at a vertical panel,the rectangular vessel being adapted for use with high pressures insideof the hollow fibers and low pressures outside of the hollow fibers.

FIG. 7 is a cross section through a cylindrical vessel at a verticalpanel, the cylindrical vessel being adapted for use with low pressuresinside of the hollow fibers and high pressures outside of the hollowfibers.

FIG. 8 is a cross section through a contact structure adapted to retainopposed ends of the HFs taken at line A-A′ in FIG. 19A.

FIG. 8A is a cross section of a HF indicating an inner and outerdiameter.

FIG. 9 is a cross section through the rows of HFs 34 that extend betweencontact structures in an intermediate phase during assembly with spacerstherebetween.

FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an assembly for manufacturing themembrane element.

FIG. 11 is a cross section through the assembly of FIG. 10 with only twoHFs, depicting the HFs as weighted.

FIG. 12 is a top view of an assembly of FIG. 11 during manufacture ofthe HF panels.

FIG. 13 is a side view of the assembly of FIG. 12.

FIG. 14 is a cross section through an assembly comprising spacersadapted to form a potting structure, minus HF roll or loom heddle.

FIG. 15 is a top view of one embodiment of a spacer.

FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the HF membrane element comprisingopposed contact structures with layers of HFs extending therebetween.

FIG. 17 is a top view of a HF membrane element with HFs extendingbetween opposed contact structures showing a set of spacers aligned withfinished baffles.

FIG. 17A is a cross section through FIG. 17 at line X-X before injectingpotting material.

FIG. 17B is a cross section through FIG. 17 at line X-X after injectingand curing potting material.

FIG. 18A is a side view of an assembly for manufacturing the membraneelement comprising two rolls one for the layer of even HFs and thesecond for the layer of odd HFs.

FIG. 18B is a top view of an assembly for manufacturing the membraneelement comprising a wide HF wrap beam (roll) supporting twosimultaneous HF panels assembly lines.

FIG. 18C is a perspective view of an assembly for manufacturing themembrane element comprising multiple spools of HFs.

FIG. 18D is a schematic top view of an assembly comprising a first spoolrow comprising an even number of HFs alternating with a second spool rowcomprising an odd number of HFs.

FIG. 18E is perspective view of an assembly for manufacturing reels ofHFs from a plurality of spools.

FIG. 18F is a schematic top view of an assembly comprising a pluralityof adjacent reels of HFs which may be spaced, as required, to producethe alternating rows of odd an even HFs.

FIG. 18G is a schematic view of a wrap beam assembly with the pluralityof HFs extended from HF reels or spools being brought from differentsources.

FIG. 19A and FIG. 19B, together, are an exploded view of a membraneelement separated from a frame of one embodiment of a hollow fiberpanel.

DEFINITIONS

“Osmosis”: The spontaneous movement of water, through a semipermeablemembrane that is permeable to water but impermeable to solute, the watermoving from a solution in which solute is less concentrated to asolution in which solute is more concentrated.

“Driving force”: The difference in chemical potential on the two sidesof a semipermeable membrane is the driving force of flow movement duringosmosis. Water moves from a region of higher potential (generally alower solute concentration) to the region of lower potential (generallyhigher solute concentration).

“Chemical potential”: The energy potential associated with the activityof ions of an ionizable substance. The chemical potential is equal tothe rate of change of free energy, known as Gibbs free energy, in asystem containing a number of moles of such substance, when all othersystem parameters; temperature, pressure and other components are heldconstant. Like other kinds of potential (electrical, gravitational,momentum, magnetic, surface tension, etc.), chemical potential isspontaneous energy that flows in a direction from high to low.

“Spontaneous diffusion”: Chemical potential is an intensive property ofa substance in a phase. The difference in chemical potential of asubstance in two adjacent phases separated by a semipermeable membranedetermines whether and/or in which direction the substance willspontaneously diffuse through the semipermeable membrane. When thecomponents of a mixture have the same chemical potential, there is nodriving force and no mutual diffusion will occur.

“Osmotic pressure”: In order to prevent water from moving across asemipermeable membrane, a pressure must be imposed to equalize the forcecreated by a given difference in the chemical potential of the solutionacross said membrane. This force is named osmotic pressure.

“Reverse Osmosis”: If an imposed pressure exceeds the osmotic pressure,then water will flow from a region of higher solute concentration to aregion of lower solute concentration in a process called ReverseOsmosis. In this case, the driving force is called reverse osmosispressure.

“Induced osmosis”: Applications described herein that use the power ofosmosis to perform a variety of functions for the benefit of mankind.

“Symbiosis”: A mutual relationship of cyclic reverberation, withoutaltering or modifying any of the specific components of the involvedsystems. Symbiosis is used to optimize industrial applications by usinga waste or less valuable byproduct in one industry as a resource for usein one or more other industries.

“Induced Symbiotic Osmosis” or “ISO”: spontaneously inducing continuoustransient flow of permeated water through a power train comprising aplurality of fluidic loops of fixed volumetric capacity and soluteconcentration, bounded by semipermeable membranes, the continuoustransient flow of permeated water from a low salinity water source,under the influence of an osmotic gradient to capture the kineticpotential of said transient flow within each loop, without influencingthe content of said loop, the transient flow (hereafter sometimesreferred to as a “Tie-Line”) being continuous and at a constant flowrate throughout adjacent fluidic loops forming the power train.

“Large Scale Renewable Energy (LSRE) system”: a system that generateselectric power of about 25,000 kWh or more, or provides electric powerto a community of about 25,000 people or more.

“Tie-Line”: Water permeates by induced osmosis into the HFs at aspecified permeate rate. In one embodiment, the specified permeate rateis constant throughout all the cells of a given power train. In oneembodiment, the water has essentially the same purity throughout thetie-line. The direction in which the tie-line flows, and the specifiedpermeate rate, will vary depending upon a variety of factors includingbut not necessarily limited to the internal HF and external HF pressureand the salinity of the respective process fluid and feed. The tie-linemay have a specified permeate rate that is several times that of thefeed without adversely impacting HF integrity. In some embodiments, thetie-line is assumed to have a permeate rate of a unit of volume persecond, i.e. m³/s or L³/s. The water permeate has as high a purity aspossible. The purity of the water permeate will depend, at least inpart, on the semipermeable membrane used. In one embodiment, the “water”permeate has a salinity of 1.5% or less. In one embodiment, the “water”permeate has a salinity of 1.5% or less; 1.4% or less; 1.3% or less;1.2% or less; 1.1% or less; 1% or less; 0.5% or less; 0.4% or less; 0.3%or less; 0.2% or less; 0.1% or less. In one embodiment, the waterpermeate is 100% pure water.

The foregoing definitions are not exhaustive, and additional definitionsmay be found in the following detailed description.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present subject matter will now be described with reference to theattached figures. Various structures, systems and devices areschematically depicted in the drawings for purposes of explanation onlyand so as to not obscure the present disclosure with details that arewell known to those skilled in the art. Nevertheless, the attacheddrawings are included to describe and explain illustrative examples ofthe present disclosure. The words and phrases used herein should beunderstood and interpreted to have a meaning consistent with theunderstanding of those words and phrases by those skilled in therelevant art. No special definition of a term or phrase, i.e., adefinition that is different from the ordinary and customary meaning asunderstood by those skilled in the art, is intended to be implied byconsistent usage of the term or phrase herein. To the extent that a termor phrase is intended to have a special meaning, i.e., a meaning otherthan that understood by skilled artisans, such a special definition willbe expressly set forth in the specification in a definitional mannerthat directly and unequivocally provides the special definition for theterm or phrase.

In one embodiment, the application provides apparati and processes ofmaking same, for efficiently exchanging low or no solute solutions withhigh or hypersolute aqueous solutions. In one embodiment, the low or nosolute solutions are saline solutions. The apparati may be used in alarge variety of processes, including but not necessarily limited towater micro filtration, ultra filtration, nanofiltration purification(reverse osmosis), extraction, salinity power generation and gas mixtureseparation (landfill gases as an example), and combinations thereof.

The Membrane Element

Hollow fibers are generally more economical than other types of membranedesign. Hollow fibers have the advantage of allowing for a largemembrane area per unit volume. Accordingly, hollow fiber systems may berelatively compact systems.

In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 19A, the application provides amembrane element 3000 comprising: a hollow fiber (HF) stack comprising aplurality of loosely packed hollow fibers (HFs) 14 comprising first endsextending through one contact structure 906 and opposed ends extendingthrough an opposed contact structure 906 a, each HF comprising anelongated lumen extending between the one contact structure 906 and theopposed contact structure 906 a and comprising a hydrophilicsemipermeable membrane adapted to achieve salt rejection of 98.5% ormore and exhibiting a surface tension of 35 dynes/cm or more. Themembrane element 3000 is adapted to be encased in a frame 12 for a HFpanel 10 of FIG. 1. The plurality of loosely packed HFs 14 are adaptedto be submersed in a first fluid and to sustain turbulence flow acrossand along surfaces of the plurality of loosely packed HFs 14 at aReynolds' Number of about 3000 or more.

Hollow Fiber Panel

In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 1, the HF panel 10 comprises: aframe 12 comprising a header 16, an opposed header 16 a, and themembrane element 3000 (FIG. 19A, described above) retained within theframe 12. The membrane element 3000 (FIG. 19A) comprising the pluralityof loosely packed HFs 14 engaged at each end by the first and secondcontact structure (906, 906 a, FIG. 19A) is adapted to provide fluidcommunication between lumens of the plurality of loosely packed HFs 14,the header 16, the opposed header 16 a, and any adjacent frames andpanels. The HF panel 10 is adapted for submersion in a first fluid andfor induced osmosis between lumens of the plurality of loosely packedHFs 14 in the membrane element 3000 (FIG. 16, FIG. 19) and the firstfluid. The HF panel 10 has sufficient mechanical integrity to sustainturbulence flow across and along surfaces of the plurality of looselypacked HFs 14 at the Reynolds' Number of about 3,000 or more and tomaintain said mechanical integrity at feed pumping pressures of 30 barsor higher.

In one embodiment, the frame 12 may have a variety of shapes (in frontalview) including, but not necessarily limited to circular, elliptical,triangular, and rectangular. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, theframe 12 is square (in frontal view) and comprises a first header 16 andan opposed header 16 a, and a first support 19 and second support 19 a.In one embodiment, one or both of the first header 16 and the opposedheader 16 a have a depth 18.

The plurality of HFs 14 comprise a plurality of loosely packedindividual HFs 1 (FIG. 1A) comprising a semipermeable membrane defininga lumen. In one embodiment, the semipermeable membrane is adapted toretain its mechanical integrity at higher feed pumping pressures acrossthe lumens and higher process fluid pressures inside of the lumenscompared to low pressure microfiltration and ultrafiltration HFmembranes currently in use in the industry.

The actual feed pressure to which the HF panel 10 comprising the HFmembrane element 3000 (FIG. 19A) will be exposed will differ dependingupon the process being performed, the initial salinity of the processfluid and the feed, and the tie-line flow. Induced osmosis of waterhaving salinity of 1% generates an osmotic head equivalent to 7.75 bars.At 6% salinity, the osmotic head is equivalent to 46.5 bars. In general,the sustainable feed pumping pressure must be sufficiently high toovercome this osmotic head. For example, in the case of desalination ofseawater (3.5% salinity) by reverse osmosis, where concentrated brineleaves at 6% salinity and produces an osmotic pressure of 46.5 bars, thesustainable feed pumping pressure must be higher than the osmotic headof 6%.

In one embodiment, the semipermeable membrane maintains mechanicalintegrity at a feed pressure of: 30 bars or higher, 31 bars or higher;32 bars or higher; 33 bars or higher; 34 bars or higher; 35 bars orhigher; 36 bars or higher; 37 bars or higher; 38 bars or higher; 39 barsor higher; 40 bars or higher; 41 bars or higher; 42 bars or higher; 43bars or higher; 44 bars or higher; 45 bars or higher; 46 bars or higher;47 bars or higher; 48 bars or higher; 49 bars or higher; or, 50 bars orhigher.

In one embodiment, the semipermeable membrane material “rejects” solute,or does not permit solute in a solution to pass through the membrane. Inone embodiment, the solute is salt, and the semipermeable membranematerial rejects salt. In one embodiment, the salt is primarily sodiumchloride.

The higher the effective solute rejection, the more efficient theoperation of the membrane. In one embodiment, the semipermeable membraneis effective to reject 98.5% or more of the solute in the feed. In oneembodiment, the semipermeable membrane is effective to reject 98.5% ormore salt in a feed. In one embodiment, the semipermeable membrane iseffective to reject the following percent of salt in the feed: 98.1%;98.2%; 98.3%; 98.4%; 98.5%; 98.6%; 98.7%; 98.8%; 98.9%; 99%; 99.1%;99.2%; 99.3%; 99.4%; 99.5%; 99.6%; 99.7%; 99.8%; 99.9%; about 100%.

The selection of suitable semipermeable membrane(s) for a particularprocess should be based on performance and economics in the particularprocess. Suitable membranes include, but are not necessarily limited tostirred cell membranes, flat sheet tangential flow membranes, tubularmembranes, capillary membranes, spiral-wound membranes, hollow fibermembranes, other high operating pressure semipermeable membranes in theform of small bore cylinders, and combinations thereof.

The membrane processing technologies of microfiltration (MF),ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) arewidely used to separate suspended and dissolved materials from watersolutions in numerous industrial, medical and drinking waterapplications. MF typically is used to separate or remove suspended orcolloidal particulates having a maximum diameter of from about 0.1 toabout 1.0 microns (about 1,000 to about 10,000 angstroms). UF typicallyis used to separate or remove dissolved materials depending upon solutesize, which typically comprises a maximum diameter of from about 0.001microns to about 0.1 microns (about 10 angstroms to about 1,000angstroms). NF and RO typically are used for to separate or removematerials having a maximum diameter of less than about 0.001 micron(about 10 angstroms).

Common membrane materials include polyamide thin film composites (TFC),polysulfone, polypropylene, cellulose acetate (CA), cellulose triacetate(CTA) and others. For commercial large RO systems, spiral wound andhollow fibers membranes are the primary candidates. Suitable membranematerials are hydrophilic.

Existing technologies suffer from what is known as concentrationpolarization phenomenon. The use of hydrophilic semipermeable membranesin hollow fiber panels significantly mitigates this phenomenon.Hydrophilic literally means “water-loving.” Accordingly, a hydrophilicmaterial exhibits an affinity for water, and tends to readily adsorbwater.

Suitable hydrophilic semipermeable membranes have a surface tensionsufficiently high to maintain materials at the surface of thesemipermeable membrane in liquid form. In one embodiment, the surfacetension of the hydrophilic semipermeable membrane is about 35 dyne/cm ormore. In one embodiment, the surface tension is about 36 dyne/cm ormore; 37 dyne/cm or more; 38 dyne/cm or more; 39 dyne/cm or more; 40dyne/cm or more. In one embodiment, the surface tension of thehydrophilic semipermeable membrane is from about 40 to about 45 dyne/cm.In one embodiment, the surface tension of the hydrophilic semipermeablemembrane is about 41 dyne/com; 42 dyne/cm; 43 dyne/cm; 44 dyne/cm; or45; dyne/cm. In one embodiment, the hydrophilic semipermeable membranematerial has a surface tension of about 44 dyne per centimeter or more.

Hydrophilic membrane materials having suitable surface tensions include,for examples, Polyepichlorohydrin (surface tension-35), PolyvinylChloride (PVC) (surface tension-39), Polysulfone (surface tension-41),Polyethylene Terephthalate (Polyester) (surface tension-43),Polyacrylonitrile (surface tension-44); Cellulose (surface tension-44),and variants thereof.

In one embodiment, the hydrophilic semipermeable membrane material iscellulose acetate. Cellulose acetate has a surface tension of 44 dyneper centimeter (dyne/cm). In one embodiment, the hydrophilicsemipermeable membrane is a cellulose triacetate (CTA) membrane. Asuitable CTA semipermeable membrane is commercially available from theJapanese corporation, Toyobo Co, Ltd.

The individual HFs 1 of FIG. 1A have a first end 13, an opposed end 13a, and a length 2 of semipermeable membrane defining a lumen. The HFsdefine a lumen having a variety of shapes including, but not necessarilylimited to tubular, elliptical, triangular, and rectangular. In oneembodiment, the HFs 1 are tubular. A person of ordinary skill in the artwill recognize that the components of the present application may have avariety of sizes. The lumen diameter may vary. In one embodiment, thelumen diameter is from about 50 micrometer to about 2000 micrometer (2mm).

The plurality of HFs 14 has a “loosely packed” configuration. FIG. 4 isa cross section through a HF bundle having a conventional tightly packedconfiguration. As seen in FIG. 4, in a tightly packed conventionalconfiguration, the walls (1 a-1 e) of adjacent HFs either touch or haveboundary layers that are so close that they form stagnation areas 52, 52a between which fluid cannot freely flow. These stagnation areas 52, 52a tend to negatively impact the efficiency of the osmotic processesusing the HF bundle. FIG. 5 is a cross section through a plurality ofHF's 14 of the present application, which are loosely packed. As seen inFIG. 5, the walls 5 a-5 e of adjacent HFs do not touch, or aresufficiently spaced to avoid forming stagnation areas between the HFs.This tends to prevent stagnation and improve the efficiency of theosmotic process performed using the plurality of HFs. This also tends toreduce the potential to form concentration polarization sites.

In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 3G, the plurality of HFs 14 in eachframe are retained in a loosely packed configuration by one or morehorizontal baffles 720 and/or one or more vertical baffles 710. In oneembodiment, the plurality of HFs 14 in each frame are retained in aloosely packed configuration by a plurality of spaced horizontal baffles720 and/or vertical baffles 710. The baffles may be external baffleswhich are removable from the HF frame 12, or the baffles may beintegrated into the HF frame 12, as described more fully below.

The external baffles may have a variety of constructions. In oneembodiment, each baffle comprises a backing with suitable retainersextending therefrom, as depicted in FIG. 3G. In one embodiment, thebaffle is a vertical baffle comprising backing 710. In one embodiment,the baffle is a horizontal baffle comprising backing 720. In oneembodiment, the retainers are spikes. In one embodiment, the retainersare wire loops. Spaced wire loop baffles are useful to avoid damagingthe plurality of HFs. The size of the backing 710, 720 will vary withthe size of the panel. The spikes or wire loops 712, 722 have a length714, 724 sufficient to extend through and inhibit movement of theplurality of HFs. In one embodiment, the baffles 710, 720 and theextensions 710, 712 are in fixed communication with the frame. In oneembodiment, the baffles are bolted to the frame.

In one embodiment, once positioned in a given system, the HFs in a framerun vertically and the panel comprises one or more horizontal baffles720. Referring to FIG. 3G, each horizontal baffle comprises backing 720comprising a plurality of appropriately spaced wire loops 722. Thespikes or wire loops 722 are spaced along the backing 720 at intervalseffective to retain the plurality of HFs running vertically in a looselypacked configuration and to prevent sagging when the spikes or wireloops 722 are inserted through the plurality of HFs. The intervalsbetween spikes or wire loops 722 may vary. In one embodiment, the spikesor wire loops 722 in a horizontal baffle are spaced at larger intervalsthan in a vertical baffle. In one embodiment, the spikes or wire loops722 in a horizontal baffle are spaced from about 6 to 12 inches apart.Once inserted through the plurality of HFs, the spikes or wire loops 722reduce movement of the plurality of HFs. In one embodiment, thehorizontal baffles 720 are spaced apart across the plurality of HFs. Thespace between the horizontal baffles 720 is effective to retain theplurality of HFs running vertically in a loosely packed configurationand to prevent sagging. In one embodiment, the space between horizontalbaffles 720 is from about 20 cm to about 30 cm.

In one embodiment, the HFs in the frame run horizontally and the panelcomprises one or more vertical baffles 710. Referring to FIG. 3G, eachvertical baffle comprises backing 710 comprising a plurality ofappropriately spaced wire loops 712. The spikes or wire loops 712 arespaced along the backing 710 at intervals that are effective to retainthe plurality of HFs running horizontally in a loosely packedconfiguration and to prevent sagging when the spikes or wire loops 712are inserted through the plurality of HFs. The intervals between spikesor wire loops 712 may vary. In one embodiment, the spikes or wire loops712 in a vertical baffle are spaced at smaller intervals than in ahorizontal baffle. In one embodiment, the spikes or wire loops 712 in avertical baffle are spaced from about 1 to 2 inches apart. Once insertedthrough the plurality of HFs, the spikes or wire loops 712 reducemovement of the plurality of HFs. In one embodiment, the verticalbaffles 710 are spaced apart across the plurality of HFs. The spacebetween the vertical baffles 710 is effective to retain the plurality ofHFs running horizontally in a loosely packed configuration and toprevent sagging. In one embodiment, the space between vertical baffles710 is from about 20 cm to about 30 cm.

The backing 710, 720 may be made of a variety of materials, includingbut not necessarily limited to metal, plastic, and combinations thereof.In one embodiment, the backings 710, 720 are made of polypropylene. Inone embodiment, the backings 710, 720 are made of fiber reinforcedplastic. The spikes or wire loops may be made of any suitable material,including but not necessarily limited to metal and plastic. In oneembodiment, the spikes or wire loops comprise steel. In one embodiment,the spikes or wire loops are coated with a suitable corrosion protectionmaterial. Substantially any corrosion protection material may be used.In one embodiment, the corrosion protection material is Teflon. In oneembodiment, the corrosion protection material is epoxy.

The frame is adapted to permit (a) induced osmosis between lumens of theplurality of hollow fibers and a surrounding environment and (b) fluidcommunication between the lumens of the plurality of hollow fibers andany adjacent panels. Referring to FIG. 1, in one embodiment, theplurality of HFs 14 are loosely packed substantially parallel to oneanother to form a first edge 11 and an opposed edge 11 a. In oneembodiment, the first edge 11 abuts the support member 19 and theopposed edge 11 a abuts the opposing support member 19 a.

In one embodiment, first ends 13 of the plurality of HFs 14 fluidlycommunicate with a first header 16. In one embodiment, the opposed ends13 a of the plurality of HFs 14 fluidly communicate with an opposedheader 16 a (not shown).

Referring to FIG. 19A, the stack of loosely packed HFs 14 (the HF stack)in the membrane element 3000 has a width 3002, a height 3004, and adepth 3005. In one embodiment, the HF stack width 3002 is the same asthe HF stack height 3004. In one embodiment, the HF stack width 3002 isabout 3 meters. In one embodiment, the HF stack has a depth 3005 of from40 to about 80 mm.

The contact structures 906, 906 a (or 1006 in FIG. 3E) at each end ofthe loosely packed HFs 14 have a length 3006, a width 3008, and athickness 3010. In one embodiment, the contact structure length 3006 isslightly larger than the HF stack width 3002, and the contact structurewidth 3008 is slightly larger than the HF stack depth 3005 to allow forproper support of the HF stack 14 on the frame of FIG. 19B. In oneembodiment, the HF stack depth 3005 is 40-80 mm. In one embodiment, theHF stack depth 3005 is about ¾ of the contact structure width 3008. Inone embodiment, the contact structure thickness 3010 is from about 20 to60 mm, depending on operating pressure.

The frame 12 has a header 16 and an opposed header 16 a. The frame has aframe width 3012, a frame height 3014, and a frame depth 3016. In oneembodiment, the frame width 3012 is the same as the frame height 3014.In one embodiment, the frame depth 3016 is from about 1.5-2 times thecontact structure width 3008 for proper support of the membrane element3000.

Referring to FIG. 2, the HF panel 10 abuts an adjacent HF panel 20having a similar structure to HF panel 10. The adjacent HF panel 20comprises a plurality of hollow fibers 24. The adjacent HF panel 20 inFIG. 2 has a square frame comprising a first header 26 and an opposedheader 26 a, a first support 29 and an opposed support (not shown). Inone embodiment, the lengths 2 (FIG. 1A) of the plurality of hollowfibers 24 in the adjacent HF panel 20 are at an angle relative to thelengths 2 (FIG. 1A) of the plurality of hollow fibers 14 in the HF panel10. In FIG. 2, the lengths 2 (FIG. 1A) of the plurality of hollow fibers24 in the HF panel 20 are oriented substantially perpendicular to thelengths 2 (FIG. 1A) of the plurality of hollow fibers 14 in the HF panel10. In this embodiment: the opposed header 16 a of the HF panel 10 abutsthe first support member 29 of the adjacent HF panel 20; the header 16of the HF panel 10 abuts the opposed support member (not shown) of theadjacent HF panel 20; the support member 19 of the HF panel 10 abuts thefirst header 26 of the adjacent HF panel 20; and the support member 19 aabuts the opposed header 26 a of the adjacent HF panel 20.

In one embodiment, header 16 comprises a first aperture 22 adjacent tosupport 19 and the opposed header 16 a comprises an aperture 23 adjacentto opposed support 19 a. The apertures 22, 23 may have a variety ofshapes including, but not necessarily limited to circular, elliptical,triangular, rectangular, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment,the apertures 22, 23 are circular. In one embodiment of a power train,the aperture 22 communicates with a source of process fluid (not shown).

In one embodiment, the HFs 25 and 24 are loosely packed between thefirst header 16 and the opposed header 16 a and 26 and 26 a in FIG. 2,respectively. In one embodiment, the packing is sufficiently loose forfeed to flow across the array substantially perpendicular to the HFpanels at a given flow rate and feed capacity without stagnation, butsufficiently tight to provide the desired processing capacity. The frame12 of the HF panel 10 comprises the headers 16, 16 a and the supports19, 19 a, the frame of adjacent HF panel 20 comprises the headers, 26,26 a and the support 29 (and the opposed support, not shown).

The headers and supports comprise a material and structure havingsufficient mechanical integrity to retain the plurality of HFs 14, 24when exposed to a substantially perpendicular flow of feed at aspecified operating pressure. The frame 12, as well as other components,such as the array casing, may be made of a variety of materialsincluding, but not necessarily limited to fiber reinforced plastic(FRP). Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also sometimes calledfiber-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of a polymermatrix reinforced with fibers. Common fibers include, but are notnecessarily limited to glass, carbon, basalt, aramid, paper, wood,asbestos, and the like. In one embodiment, the fibers are selected fromthe group consisting of glass, carbon, basalt, aramid, and combinationsthereof. Common polymers include, but are not necessarily limited tothermosetting plastics selected from the group consisting of epoxy,vinyl ester, polyester, phenol-formaldehyde resins, and combinationsthereof.

Suitable FRP's meet or exceed the mechanical properties of steel. In oneembodiment, the FRP exhibits superior thermo-mechanical properties, islight weight, is relatively low cost, exhibits corrosion resistance, andis easy to maintain. In one embodiment, headers and supports are made ofthe same material. In one embodiment, the headers and supports are madeof different materials. In one embodiment, the headers and/or supportsare made of steel (FIG. 3E). In one embodiment, the headers and/orsupports are made of FRP. In one embodiment, the headers and thesupports are made of FRP.

The membrane element and HF panel are useful in a variety of ISOapparati and processes. Suitable ISO apparati and processes include, butare not necessarily limited to those for ISO power generation, reverseosmosis, desalination, and water extraction from diluted organic,contaminated groundwater and industrial solutions. The HF panel 10 isparticularly useful to perform large scale ISO processes. In oneembodiment, the process fluid 15 (or fluid inside of the HF lumen) is ata relatively high pressure and the feed (or fluid outside of the lumen)is at a relatively low pressure.

The salinity (or solute concentration) of the process fluid 15 and thefeed 17 will vary. The process fluid 15 for an extraction processtypically has a moderate salinity. In one embodiment, the moderatesalinity is from about 3% to about 7%. The process fluid 15 for osmoticpower generation and/or seawater desalination by reverse osmosis willhave a low salinity, typically less than about 3%. In one embodiment,the process fluid 15 is at a relatively low pressure and the initialfeed is at a relatively high pressure. In one embodiment, the processfluid is at a relatively low pressure of from about 3 bars to about 5bars and the feed is at a relatively high pressure of from about 10 barsto about 60 bars or more, depending of on feed salinity. In oneembodiment, the conditions are optimized to produce a tie-line, asdefined herein and more fully described in ISO U.S. Pat. No. 8,545,701,having a flow rate that varies from less than 1 liter/sec to a flow rateof several cubic meters/sec. In one embodiment, the conditions areoptimized to produce a tie-line having a flow rate of greater than 1m³/sec. In one embodiment, the tie-line has a flow rate of 3 m³/sec ormore. In one embodiment, the tie-line has a flow rate of than 5 m³/secor more. In one embodiment, the tie-line has a flow rate of 10 m³/sec orless.

In one embodiment, the pressure differential between the process fluidwithin the HF lumens and the feed outside of the HF lumens,respectively, is 5 bars or more. In one embodiment, particularly in thecase of treating water contaminated with radioactive material,relatively low pressure differential is used, at least initially, toavoid radioactive particles penetrating the semipermeable membrane. Inone embodiment treating water contaminated with radioactive material,the operating pressures within the HF lumens and the outside of the HFlumens in an initial closed loop maintain a pressure differential of 10bars or less in the initial closed loop. In one embodiment treatingwater contaminated with radioactive material, the operating pressureswithin the HF lumens and the outside of the HF lumens in an initialclosed loop maintain a pressure differential of less than 10 bars in theinitial closed loop. In one embodiment treating water contaminated withradioactive material, the operating pressures within the HF lumens andthe outside of the HF lumens in a final high pressure closed loop inseries maintains a pressure differential of 5 bars or higher in thefinal high pressure closed loop. In one embodiment, particularly whenthe process is ISO power generation and reverse osmosis, the pressuredifferential is 40 bars or more. In one embodiment, for powergeneration, the pressure differential is 30 bars or more.

Accordingly, depending upon the process performed, the pressuredifferential is: from 5 bars or more to 10 bars or less (esp. watercontaminated with radioactive material); in other processes, 15 bars ormore; 20 bars or more; 25 bars or more; 30 bars or more (esp. powergeneration); 31 bars or more; 32 bars or more; 33 bars or more; 34 barsor more; 35 bars or more; 36 bars or more; 37 bars or more; 38 bars ormore; 39 bars or more; 40 bars or more (power generation and reverseosmosis); 41 bars or more; 42 bars or more; 43 bars or more; 44 bars ormore; 45 bars or more; 46 bars or more; 47 bars or more; 48 bars ormore; 49 bars or more; 50 bars or more; 51 bars or more; 52 bars ormore; 53 bars or more; 54 bars or more; 55 bars or more; 56 bars ormore; 57 bars or more; 58 bars or more; 59 bars or more; or, 60 bars ormore.

The feed 17 flows substantially perpendicular to and across the HF panel20, and the HF panel 10, producing a modified feed 17 b. The modifiedfeed 17 b has a different flow rate and composition than the feed 17caused by water spontaneously permeating from or into the HFs 14 thatare stretched across the frame 12. Process fluid 15 (FIG. 1) flowsthrough the aperture 22 and into the first header 16. The process fluid15 flows from the first header 16 into the lumens of the plurality ofHFs 14 and in a direction 13 b to the opposed header 16 a. Modifiedprocess fluid 21 (FIG. 1) flows through an aperture 23 out of opposedheader 16 a. In one embodiment, the modified process fluid 21 flows intoan adjacent header 26 a (FIG. 2).

Although relatively low lumen operating pressures (e.g., 3-5 bars) maynot be sufficient for power generation, HF panels having such low lumenpressures may still be used to provide support functions. In oneembodiment, HF panels having low lumen operating pressures are used toperform water filtration. In one embodiment, HF panels having low lumenoperating pressures are used to perform ISO extraction.

In one embodiment, the process fluid is seawater. In one embodiment, thefeed is brackish water or agricultural drainage. In this embodiment,water spontaneously permeates from the feed (brackish water oragricultural drainage) to the seawater in the HF lumens, diluting theseawater.

The HF stack cross section 11 of the plurality of HFs 14 in the frame 12of FIG. 1 and the HF stack cross section 18 a of the plurality of HFs 24in the frame of HF panel 20 of FIG. 2 may vary in size according toapplication. In one embodiment, the HF stack cross section 11 and the HFstack cross section 18 a are different. In one embodiment, the HF stackcross section 11 and the HF stack cross section 18 a are the same.

Referring now to FIG. 3, a power array 30 comprises a plurality ofsequentially abutting pairs (A, B, C) of HF panels. In one embodiment,spaced horizontal baffles 720 a, 720 b, 720 c are visible on a tailpanel. In this embodiment, an initial feed 37 is charged to the powerarray 30 at an angle substantially perpendicular to and across therespective plurality of HFs 34-34 e in each panel to exit as a modifiedfeed 37 a. In one embodiment, where the initial feed is a high salinityfeed, the initial feed 37 is at a pressure of from about 30 bars toabout 50 bars and the process fluid 35 is at a pressure of from about 1bar to about 5 bars.

In one embodiment, initial process fluid 35 having a relatively lowsalinity flows through the aperture 38 and into the header 36, from theheader 36 through the plurality of HFs 34 in a direction 39 a, producinga modified initial process fluid 33 that flows into an opposed header 36a from the opposed lumens. The modified initial process fluid 33 flowsthrough an aperture 32 a-1 and through an abutting aperture 32 a-2 (FIG.3A) into an adjacent header 36 b, through the plurality of HFs 34 a,producing a second modified process fluid (not shown) that flows into anopposed header 36 c. The second modified process fluid (not shown) flowsthrough a first aperture (not shown) and through an abutting aperture 32b-2 (FIG. 3A) into an adjacent header 36 d. The second modified processfluid (not shown) flows through the plurality of HFs 34 b, producing athird modified process fluid 33 c that flows into the header 36 e. Thethird modified process fluid 33 c flows through an aperture 32 c-1 intoheader 36 f (FIG. 3), from header 36 f through the plurality of HFs 34 cinto opposed header 36 g, producing a fourth modified process fluid (notshown). The fourth modified process fluid (not shown) flows from header36 g through abutting apertures (not shown) into adjacent header 36 h,through the plurality of HFs 34 d to produce a fifth modified processfluid 33 d. The fifth modified process fluid flows through aperture 32e-1 and an abutting aperture into an adjacent header 36 j, through theplurality of HFs 34 e, into the header 36 k producing a sixth modifiedprocess fluid (not shown). In the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 the sixthmodified process fluid (not shown) exits through an aperture (not shown)in the header 36 k. In one embodiment, the sixth modified process fluidis collected. In one embodiment, the sixth modified process fluid 31flows to the next array. Referring to FIG. 3A, the spaced horizontalbaffles 720 a, 720 b, 720 c and spaced vertical baffles 710 a, 710 b,710 c are visible on the respective panels. The baffles are described inmore detail below.

FIG. 3A-1 is frontal view of a vertical fiber panel at a cross sectionthrough a rectangular array comprising a casing 49. FIG. 3A-2 is a topview of the array of FIG. 3A-1 comprising the array casing 49.

Referring to FIG. 3A-1, process fluid is introduced into the header 41and flows through the HFs to an opposed header 41 a. In one embodiment,referring to FIG. 3A-2, a high salinity brine feed 43 is charged to thearray 45, and flows from and across a tail panel 47 a to and across aninitial panel 47 b of the array 45. In one embodiment, the total area(width×length) of the frontal view across which the feed flows is up to100 times larger than the corresponding area across which the feed flowsin a conventional, commercially available tube-like high pressuremembrane array. The modified feed 43 a exiting the array 45 is a lowsalinity product, typically at a higher flow rate than the high salinitybrine feed 43.

FIG. 3B depicts a typical cross flow pattern in a desalination array 3.In one embodiment, the desalination panels operate relativelyindependently. In one embodiment, a brine feed 44 is charged at arelatively high pressure to and across the desalination array 3. In oneembodiment, the brine feed 44 is seawater. Where the brine feed 44 isseawater, the seawater 44 passes across the array and water passes fromthe seawater into the HFs, producing desalinated seawater 47. Arelatively high salinity brine 44 a exits the array. Spaced horizontalbaffles 720 a, 720 b, 720 c and spaced vertical baffles 710 a, 710 b,710 c are visible the respective panels. The baffles are described inmore detail below.

FIG. 3C is a perspective view of desalination array 705 comprising pairsof substantially perpendicularly oriented panels (A, B, C). In oneembodiment, seawater 700 is fed across the array to and across a tailpanel 702 at a relatively high pressure. As the seawater 700 passes fromthe tail panel 702 across the array to an initial panel 704, water flowsfrom the seawater into the lumens of the HFs, producing desalinatedseawater 708. A relatively higher salinity brine 700 a exits the initialpanel 704. Spaced horizontal baffles 720 a, 720 b, 720 c are visible onthe tail panels. The baffles are described in more detail below.

In one embodiment, the process fluid travels through the headers via apipe structure. The pipe structure may have a variety of configurations.FIG. 3D is a cross section at 900′-900″ in FIG. 3A illustrating oneembodiment 900 of a pipe structure. In one embodiment, the pipestructure 3D comprises fiber reinforced plastic. Referring to FIG. 3D,in this embodiment, the header comprises a rectangular support structure902. In one embodiment, a pipe 904 is retained within the rectangularsupport structure 902. In one embodiment, the rectangular supportstructure 902 is a solid structure defining a bore therethrough. In FIG.3D, the rectangular support structure 902 is a frame with a pipe 904extending therethrough. In one embodiment, the rectangular supportstructure 902 and the pipe 904 comprise fiber reinforced plastic. In oneembodiment, the rectangular support structure comprises one or morepressure equalizer openings 904 a-d. In this embodiment, the contactpoints between the rectangular support structure 902 and the pipe 904are secured using any suitable means. In one embodiment, the contactpoints between the rectangular support structure 902 and the pipe 904are secured using cement, adhesive, or other suitable material. In oneembodiment, epoxy cement is used to secure the rectangular supportstructure 902 to the pipe 904. In one embodiment, gasket material 906 ais provided between frames at opposed sides of the rectangular supportstructure 902.

In one embodiment, the plurality of hollow fibers 34 (or 14, 24 in FIGS.1 and 2, respectively) extend through a contact structure 906 (FIG. 3D)or 1006 (FIG. 3E) adapted to retain the plurality of HFs 34 in a looselypacked arrangement. The contact structure 906 (or 1006 in FIG. 3E) maybe any suitable material (2000 in FIG. 8). In one embodiment, thecontact structure 906 (or 1006 in FIG. 3E) comprises a suitablethermosetting material. In one embodiment, the contact structure 906 isselected from the group consisting of epoxy, polyurethane, andcombinations thereof. As seen in FIG. 3D, the ends 13 (FIG. 1A) of thehollow fibers 34 empty into the pipe 904.

FIG. 8 is a cross section through a contact structure 906. The contactstructure 906 or 1006 (FIG. 3E) comprises cured potting material 2000with embedded alternating rows of HFs 34. In one embodiment, theembedded alternating rows of HFs 34 form abutting rows of hexagonalstructures 2006 around a central HF 34 c. The contact structure 906 or1006 (FIG. 3E) may be made in any desired size. In one embodiment, thecontact structure 906 or 1006 has a width 2003 (3008 in FIG. 19A) ofabout 55-105 mm. In one embodiment, the contact structure 906 or 1006has a thickness (3010 in FIG. 19A) of about 20-60 mm. In one embodiment,the contact structure 906 or 1006 has a length 2001 (3006 in FIG. 19A)of up to 3,000 mm (3 m).

The inner and outer diameter of the HFs 34 will vary depending upon theapplication and process parameters. In one embodiment, referring to FIG.9 a, the HFs 34 have an outer diameter D_(o) of from about 200-3,000micrometers (0.2-3 mm). The outer diameter (D_(o)) will vary dependingupon the desired feed pressure. HFs having a smaller outer diameter(D_(o)) will withstand higher feed pressures. For example, HFs having anouter diameter (D_(o)) of 0.2 mm for reverse osmosis desalination canwithstand feed pressures as high as 70 bars. In contrast, HFs having anouter diameter (D_(o)) of 3 mm for water microfiltration can withstandrelatively lower feed pressure of just a few bars.

In one embodiment, the outer diameter (D_(o)) of the HFs 34 is: 0.2 mm;0.3 mm; 0.4 mm; 0.5 mm; 0.6 mm, 0.7 mm; 0.8 mm; 0.9 mm; 1 mm; 1.1 mm;1.2 mm; 1.3 mm; 1.4 mm; 1.5 mm; 1.6 mm; 1.7 mm; 1.8 mm; 1.9 mm; 2.0 mm;2.1 mm; 2.2 mm; 2.3 mm; 2.4 mm; 2.5 mm; 2.6 mm; 2.7 mm; 2.8 mm; 2.9 mm;or 3.0 mm. In one embodiment, the HFs 34 have an inner diameter (D₁) ofabout: 0.05 mm; 0.06 mm; 0.07 mm; 0.08 mm; 0.09 mm; 0.1 mm; 0.2 mm; 0.3mm; 0.4 mm; 0 5 mm; 0.6 mm; 0.7 mm; 0.8 mm; 0.9 mm; 1 mm; 1.1 mm; 1.1mm; 1.2 mm; 1.3 mm; 1.4 mm; 1.5 mm. The size of the space between HFs(2007, FIG. 9) will vary depending upon parameters of the process forwhich the HF panel 10 will be used, particularly the flow dynamicanalysis (Reynolds number).

FIG. 9 depicts a cross section through the rows of HFs 34 and spacers2014 that extend between the contact structures 906 in an intermediatephase during assembly. In this embodiment, a row 2010 comprising an oddnumber of HFs 34 o alternates with a row 34 e comprising an even numberof HFs, the repetition of the rows thereby forming the hexagonalstructures 2006. In one embodiment, the alternate rows of HFs 34 o, 34 eare separated along their length between contact structures 906 or 1006by a spacer 2014. The spacer 2014 may be made of any stackable,nonstick, easily removable flat sheet of material. In one embodiment,the spacer 2014 comprises a material selected from the group consistingof laminated cardboard, polymeric material, wooden veneer, fiberglasssheet, sheet of paper, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, thespacer 2014 comprises laminated cardboard.

FIGS. 10-17 and 18A-18G illustrate suitable assemblies and processes formaking the structures depicted in FIGS. 8 and 9. The HF's may beprovided in a variety of forms. Such forms include, but are notnecessarily limited to rolls, spools, reels, or wrap beam assemblies.FIG. 18A is a side view of an embodiment in which a first roll 2050 acomprises HF's having a first spacing (in one embodiment, an even numberof HFs), and a second row 2050 b comprising HFs having an alternatingspacing (an odd number of HFs). In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG.18B, the roll 2050 a is sufficiently wide (line 2052) that a pluralityof HF stacks 2054, 2054 a are made using a single roll 2050 a.

FIG. 18C is a perspective view of an assembly comprising a plurality ofvertically adjacent spools 2052 of HFs arranged in rows. In oneembodiment, horizontally adjacent spools are used (not shown). FIG. 18Dis a schematic top view of an assembly comprising a first spool row 2052a comprising an even number of HFs alternating with a second spool row2052 b comprising an odd number of HFs. FIG. 18E is a perspective viewof an assembly for manufacturing reels 2054 of HFs from a plurality ofspools 2052. FIG. 18F is a schematic top view of an assembly comprisinga plurality of adjacent reels 2060 of HFs which may be spaced, asrequired, to produce the alternating rows of odd and even HFs. FIG. 18Gis a schematic view of a wrap beam assembly 2060 with the plurality ofHFs 34 extended from therefrom, which also may be used in an assembly tomake the membrane assembly.

In one embodiment, two or more loom heddles 2017 (FIGS. 10 and 11) partalternating rows 34 o, 34 e of HFs (FIG. 9). The alternating rows of 34o, 34 e of HFs may have a variety of arrangements. In one embodiment,the loom heddles part rows with an even number of HFs 34 e alternatingwith rows comprising an odd number of HFs 34 o. The process will bedescribed in more detail in connection with a loom heddle. Persons ofordinary skill in the art will recognize how to use rolls, spools,reels, or wrap beam assemblies in a similar process.

In one embodiment, a HF assembly platform 2018 is provided adjacent tothe HF loom heddle 2016. Referring to FIG. 11, in one embodiment, afirst spacer 2014 a is provided on the HP assembly platform 2018. In oneembodiment, a first row comprising an odd number of spaced HFs 34 o isextended lengthwise across the first spacer 2014 a. In one embodiment,the opposed ends 2015 of HFs opposite to the loom heddle 2016 areweighted or engaged to maintain the HFs extended along the length of theHF assembly platform 2018. In one embodiment, the opposed ends 2015 ofthe HFs are weighted or engaged sufficiently to extend the HFs. In oneembodiment, one or more of the opposed ends 2015 of the HFs are engagedby a suitable clamp (not shown). In one embodiment, the clamp is linedwith an elastic material to reduce deformation of the HFs engaged in theclamp.

The elastic material may be of natural origin, such as natural rubber orcork, or of synthetic origin, such as thermoplastic elastomers,including styrenic elastomers, polyolefins, polyurethanes, polyamides,and combinations thereof. In one embodiment the elastic material isthermoplastic elastomer including, but not necessarily limited to thoseselected from the group consisting of silicon elastomer, neoprene,isoprene, butyl rubber, polymer flexible foam, and combinations thereof.Generally, these elastic materials have a Young's Elasticity Modulus ofless than 1 GPa and specific gravity of less than 1000 kg/m³. In oneembodiment, the elastic material is rubber. In one embodiment, all ofthe opposed ends 2015 of the HFs are engaged in a single clamp having asuitable width and sufficient weight or tension to straighten the HF onthe HF assembly platform 2018, but without stretching the HFs.

In one embodiment, a spacer 2014 b is placed over the first row of HFs34 o. In one embodiment, a next row 34 e comprising an even number ofHFs is extended across the second spacer 2014 b. Referring to FIG. 13,the process is repeated until a stack comprising the desired number ofrows of HFs 34 o, 34 e (FIG. 9) is formed. The number of rows of HFs 34o, 34 e will vary with the desired size of the contact structure 906 andwith the outer diameter (D_(o)) of the HFs 34. In one embodiment, thedepth of the stack of rows of HFs (2027 in FIG. 13, 3005 in FIG. 19A) is40 mm. In this embodiment, a stack comprising HFs having an outerdiameter (D_(o)) of 1 mm will comprise from about 36 to about 48 rows ofHFs. Processes using HFs having a larger outer diameter (D_(o)), forexample of about 2 mm, will comprise about 16 to about 24 rows of HFs.

In one embodiment, HF stack depth (2027 in FIG. 13, 3005 in FIG. 19A) is40 mm, the HFs have an outer diameter (D_(o)) of less than 0.5 mm, andthe stack comprises from about 64 to about 80 rows of HFs. Processesusing HFs having a smaller diameter of 0.5 mm or less would include ISOpower generation and reverse osmosis. In one embodiment, the stackcomprises the following number of rows of HFs: 20 or more; 21 or more;22 or more; 23 or more; 24 or more; 25 or more; 26 or more; 27 or more;28 or more; 29 or more; 30 or more; 31 or more; 32 or more; 33 or more;34 or more; 34 or more; 36 or more; 37 or more; 38 or more; 39 or more;40 or more. In one embodiment, the stack comprises 30 or less rows ofHFs. In one embodiment, where relatively small size HFs are used, thespace 2007 (FIG. 9) between HFs may be at or slightly greater than theouter diameter (D_(o)). This may require increasing the width 2003 (FIG.8, 3008 in FIG. 19A) of the contact structure and/or adding one or moreHFs panels 10, as needed.

The stack may have any suitable HF stack depth (2027 in FIG. 13, 3005 inFIG. 19A). In one embodiment, the HF stack depth 2027, 3005 is about 30mm or more; 35 mm or more; 40 mm or more; 45 mm or more; 50 mm or more;55 mm or more; 60 mm or more; 65 mm or more; 70 mm or more. In oneembodiment, the HF stack depth is 80 mm or less.

In one embodiment, the HF assembly platform 2018 (FIG. 10) has a width2023 of from about 500 mm to about 3 m or more, depending upon how manymembrane elements are being made on the HF assembly platform. In oneembodiment, the HF assembly platform 2018 has a width of about 500 mm ormore; 600 mm or more; 700 mm or more; 800 mm or more; 900 mm or more; 1m or more; 1.1 m or more; 1.2 m or more; 1.3 m or more; 1.4 m or more;1.5 m or more; 1.6 m or more; 1.7 m or more; 1.8 m or more; 1.9 m ormore; 2 m or more; 2.1 m or more; 2.2 m or more; 2.3 m or more; 2.4 m ormore; 2.5 m or more; 2.6 m or more; 2.7 m or more; 2.8 m or more; 2.9 mor more; or 3 m or more. The HF assembly platform 2018 has a length ofseveral times of its width. In one embodiment, the contact structure 906of FIG. 19A has a length (2001, FIG. 8) of 3 meters or less. In oneembodiment, the total stack depth 2027 (FIG. 13, 3005 of FIG. 19A)occupies about 75% of the width (2003, FIG. 8, 3010 in FIG. 19A) of thecontact structure 906.

When aligned, the spacers 2014 a, 2014 b of FIG. 10 form a plurality ofHF potting chambers 2020 a-d of FIGS. 12 and 13 to form a plurality ofHF panels 10. In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 17A, the spacers aresimple, unattached sheets 2014 a, 2014 b. The sheets 2014 a, 2014 b mayhave a variety of shapes as long as they define the potting chambers(alone, or in combination with surrounding structures), provide adequateseparation of the alternating rows of HFs 34 o, 34 e, and are easilyremovable. Referring to FIG. 15, each spacer 2014 comprises a sheet ofmaterial extending between opposed ends 2021 a, 2021 b and opposedlongitudinal edges 2022 a, 2022 b. The potting chambers 2020 a-2020 dcomprise slots through the spacers 2014 extending from the longitudinaledge 2022 a to the opposed longitudinal edge 2022 b. The distancebetween potting chambers 2020 a and 2020 b, or 2020 c and 2020 d, etc.,form the desired length of HF in between these chambers. Each pottingchamber 2020 a-d will form a contact structure 906 (FIG. 16, FIG. 19A)or 1006 (FIGS. 3D and 3E). In one embodiment, the spacers 2014 arereusable durable sheets adapted to consistently produce potting chambers2020 a-d having predetermined dimensions.

In one embodiment, the spacer 2014 also comprises an intermediate slot2026 of FIG. 15 between potting chambers 2020 a-2020 d. The intermediateslot(s) 2026 divide the relatively long section of spacer 2013 betweenopposed potting chambers, e.g. 2020 c and 2020 d, into smaller sectionsfor ease in later side removal of the spacer 2014.

Referring back to FIG. 13, when the spacers 2014 are placed between thelayers of HFs, the slots align to form the potting chambers 2020 a-2020d. The resulting potting chambers 2020 a-2020 d have well defineddimensions, orientation, careful alignment of HFs and relatively smoothinternal surfaces. In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 14, an upperedge 2030 b of each potting chamber fluidly communicates with a sourceof potting material 2000 (not shown). In one embodiment, a lower edge2030 a of each potting chamber may fluidly communicate with a source ofpotting material 2000.

In one embodiment, suitable provisions are made to prevent the pottingmaterial 2000 from filling unintended areas. In one embodiment, apetroleum based malleable sealant is applied to the surfaces of thepotting chambers 2020 a-2020 d defined by the slots, including any gapsat the surfaces. In one embodiment, the petroleum based malleablesealant is smoothed using any suitable method to avoid damaging the HFsor the contact structure 906 during separation after curing the contactstructure 906. In one embodiment, the petroleum based malleable sealantis smoothed using a brush or air stream. In one embodiment, thepetroleum based malleable sealant is applied between HFs in spaces 2006,2007 (FIG. 9) between HFs. In one embodiment, the petroleum basedmalleable sealant is applied to portions of spaces (2007, FIG. 9)adjacent to the contact structure 906 to a sufficient distance toprevent invasion of the potting material 2000 into the spaces 2007. Inone embodiment, the petroleum based malleable sealant is petroleumjelly, preferably Vaseline. In one embodiment, a 10-15 mm layer of thepetroleum based malleable sealant is applied around the inside of eachpotting structure 2020 a-d. In one embodiment, the layer of petroleumbased malleable sealant has a thickness on the surface of the contactstructure (not shown) that is equivalent to the HF diameter (D_(o)), orabout: 0.5 mm or more; 1 mm or more; 2 mm or more; 3 mm or more. In oneembodiment, the layer of petroleum based malleable sealant has a widthof 15 mm or less. In one embodiment, the petroleum based malleablesealant is applied each time a new HF is strung across the pottingchamber or applied when a spacer 2014 is placed.

In one embodiment, after all of the desired rows of HFs 34 o, 34 e andspacers 2014 are stacked, and after forming the potting chamber andtrimming its rough edges, potting material is poured or injected intothe chamber and subjected to setting conditions. In one embodiment,liquid epoxy resin of polymeric or semi-polymeric material is pouredinto the chamber and allowed to set for about an hour until the pottingmaterial solidifies. Thereafter, the spacers are removed.

Once material 2000 sets, the contact structures 906 a, 906 b (FIG. 16)are formed. In one embodiment, a plurality of membrane elements 3000(FIG. 16, FIG. 19A) are formed adjacent to one another (see FIG. 18). Inthis embodiment, the membrane elements 3000 (FIG. 16, FIG. 19A) areseparated. In one embodiment, the spacers 2014 are removed, leaving themembrane elements 3000 comprising the HF's 34 extending therebetween. Inone embodiment, the portion of HF's 34 extending between adjacentpotting chambers (e.g., between 2020 b and 2020 c in FIGS. 12 and 13) iscut to produce the membrane element 3000 (FIG. 16, FIG. 19A). In oneembodiment, the outer edges of the potting chambers are smoothed usingindustrial method. The result is membrane element 3000 comprisingopposed contact structures 906 a, 906 b (FIG. 16).

The size of the HF panels 10 may vary depending upon a variety offactors. In one embodiment, typically in larger HF panels 10 of over 300mm in length, intermediate baffles may be required to retain theposition of HFs and to avoid damage to the HFs in relatively highturbulent flow, particularly during startup of operation. In oneembodiment, the baffles 710, 720 (FIG. 3G) are made during the pottingprocedure. In this embodiment, referring to FIG. 17, the spacers 2014 a,2014 b, 2014 c are rectangular and spaced apart adjacent to one anotheracross the HFs 34. Referring to FIG. 17A, when the spacers 2014 a-2014 care stacked between the even layers of HFs 34 e and the odd layers ofHFs 34 o, spacer potting chambers 2019 are formed. The spacer pottingchambers 2019 have well defined dimensions, orientation, carefulalignment of HFs and relatively smooth internal surfaces.

In one embodiment, suitable provisions are made to prevent the pottingmaterial 2000 (FIG. 8) from filling undesired areas. In one embodiment,a petroleum based malleable sealant is applied to the surfaces of thespacer potting chambers 2019, including any gaps at the surfaces. In oneembodiment, the petroleum based malleable sealant is smoothed using anysuitable method. In one embodiment, the petroleum based malleablesealant is applied in spaces surrounding the HFs 34 adjacent to thespacers 2014 a-c to a sufficient distance to prevent invasion of thepotting material 2000 into the spaces. In one embodiment, the petroleumbased malleable sealant is applied each time a new HF is strung acrossthe potting chamber.

In one embodiment, after all of the desired rows of HFs 34 o, 34 e andspacers 2014 and 2014 a-c are stacked, the material 2000 is injected influid form into the spacer potting chambers 2019 (FIG. 17A) and exposedto curing conditions. Once material 2000 cures, the baffles 710 (FIG.17B) are formed. In one embodiment, the spacers 2014 a-c are removed.FIG. 17B is a cross section through FIG. 17 at line X-X. The baffles 710extend through and retain the HFs in a plane defined by the baffles. Thebaffles 710 may have a variety of sizes depending upon the size of theHF panel 10. In one embodiment, the baffles 710 have a thickness D₃ offrom about 6.3 mm (¼ inch) to about 0.375 mm (⅜ inch). In oneembodiment, opposed ends of the baffles 710 are glued to adjacent sidesof HF frame (19, 19 a, FIG. 1).

Accordingly, in one embodiment, the application provides a method ofmaking a membrane element, the method comprising:

-   -   a. providing a plurality of detachable spacer structures having        given dimensions;    -   b. placing one or more first spacer structures on an HF assembly        platform;    -   c. extending a first row of first HFs with first spaces        therebetween over the one or more first spacer structures        aligned with the longitudinal axis of the HF assembly platform,        forming a first longitudinal row of first HFs, the first spaces        having a width effective according to flow dynamic calculations        to maintain turbulence flow across and along surfaces of the        hollow fiber membranes at a Reynolds Number of 3,000 or more;    -   d. placing one or more second spacer structures having the given        dimensions over the first row of HFs aligned with the one or        more first spacer structures;    -   e. extending an adjacent row of HFs with second spaces        therebetween across the one or more second spacer structures        aligned with the longitudinal axis of the HF assembly platform;    -   f. repeating (d)-(e) with additional rows of HFs and spacer        structures, forming a stack of alternating rows of HFs and        intervening spacer structures, the stack having a desired        height, wherein vertically aligned adjacent surfaces of the        stacked spacer structures define potting chambers at opposed        ends of the HFs, the potting chambers defining an inner surface        having predetermined dimensions.

In one embodiment, the method comprises:

-   -   g. applying a malleable sealant over the inner surface of the        potting chambers, producing sealed potting chambers;    -   h. injecting thermosetting potting material into the sealed        potting chambers;    -   i. curing the potting material, thereby forming a plurality of        contact structures comprising HFs extending therebetween; and,    -   j. removing the intervening spacer structures.

In one embodiment, referring back to FIG. 3E, the header comprises asolid structure 1000 with a bore 1008 therethrough. The solid structure1000 may have a variety of shapes. Suitable shapes include, but are notnecessarily limited to, triangular shapes, rectangular shapes,pentagonal shapes, hexagonal shapes, cylindrical shapes, oblong shapes,and the like. In one embodiment, the solid structure 1000 is anelongated rectangular structure. The bore 1008 also may have a varietyof shapes. In one embodiment, depicted in FIG. 3E, the solid structure1000 is an elongated rectangular structure with an elongated cylindricalbore 1008 therethrough.

The solid structure 1000 may be made of any suitable material. In oneembodiment, the solid structure 1000 is made of steel. In oneembodiment, the steel is coated with a suitable corrosion protectionmaterial. Substantially any corrosion protection material may be used.In one embodiment, the corrosion protection material is Teflon. In oneembodiment, the corrosion protection material is epoxy. In oneembodiment, the solid structure 1000 is made of fiber reinforcedplastic. In one embodiment, a portion of a side of the solid structurecomprises a contact structure 1006 adapted to retain the plurality ofHFs 14 in a loosely packed arrangement. The contact structure 1006 maybe any suitable material. In one embodiment, the contact structure 1006comprises a suitable thermosetting material. In one embodiment, thecontact structure 1006 is selected from the group consisting of epoxy,polyurethane, and combinations thereof. As seen in FIG. 3D, the ends 13(FIG. 1A) of the hollow fibers 34 empty into the pipe structure (904 inFIG. 3D, 1000 in FIG. 3E).

FIG. 3F is a cross section taken at line 3F-3F of FIG. 2. FIG. 3F is acutaway/transparent frame perspective view of a HF panel 10 (FIG. 2)comprising the header 16 and an adjacent header 26 (FIG. 2). In FIG. 3F,the header 16 is a solid rectangular structure 902 comprising a pipe orbore 904 therethrough. The header 26 comprises a solid rectangularstructure comprising a pipe or bore 913 therethough. As seen in FIG. 3F,process fluid travels from a header terminal box 16 aa, through the pipe904 and across the header 16 (FIG. 2) to an opposed header terminal box16 aa′. The process fluid entering the header terminal box 16 aa′ passesthrough the aperture 23 into the header terminal box 26 aa of the header26 and enters the pipe 913. The process is repeated for additionaladjacent panels.

Leakage from adjacent header terminal boxes, such as 26 aa′ and 16 aa′in FIG. 3F, similarly may be avoided using a variety of suitable sealingarrangements. For example, in one embodiment, a cylindrical sleeve (notshown) may extend through the adjacent apertures 23, 23 a (FIG. 3F) andsealingly engage adjacent inside surfaces in each header terminal box.The sealing engagement may be fixed or flexible. In one embodiment, thesealing engagement is provided using o-rings between the outer surfaceof the sleeve and adjacent surfaces in the respective header terminalbox. In one embodiment, adjacent frame surfaces are sealed to retain thefeed flowing between the plurality of HFs and prevent high pressure feedflow escaping from the array. In one embodiment, adjacent frame surfacesare provided with sealing gaskets.

FIG. 6 is a cross section through an array comprising a square arraycasing 60. A rectangular or square array casing 60 may be used in avariety of circumstances. In one embodiment, a square array casing 60 isused where the pressure of the process fluid 62 inside the HF lumens isrelatively high and the pressure of the feed is relatively low.

High Pressure Cells

In one embodiment, the array or a plurality of arrays are retained in asuitable pressure vessel. Suitable pressure vessels comprise an outerwall defining an interior having a cross section with a variety ofconfigurations, including but not necessarily limited to a triangularconfiguration, a circular configuration, an elliptical configuration,and a rectangular configuration. In order to support the array of thepresent application within a pressure vessel, it is desirable to havetwo or more contact points between the outer surface of the array andthe interior of the pressure vessel.

In one embodiment, high pressure cells are provided by placing the arrayor a plurality of arrays in a suitable pressure vessel. Suitablepressure vessels comprise an outer wall defining in interior having across section with a variety of configurations, including but notnecessary limited to a triangular configuration, a circularconfiguration, an elliptical configuration, and a rectangularconfiguration.

In one embodiment, referring to FIG. 7, the pressure vessel 70 iscircular in cross section. This embodiment provides four contact points74 a-74 d between the inside wall of the pressure vessel 70 and cornersof the array. These contact points 74 a-74 d support the array 30 withinthe pressure vessel. In one embodiment, the array 30 is provided with asealing encasement 71 therearound. The sealing encasement may be anysuitable sealant material effective to maintain a specified turbulenceflow rate at the given feed operating pressure. In one embodiment, theencasement is shrink wrap or polypropylene. In one embodiment, one ormore additional supports 76 a-76 d extend from a surface of the arraycasing to the interior of the pressure vessel, providing additionalsupport. In this embodiment, there is a relatively large fluid flow areabetween (70 a) between the interior of the pressure vessel and the arraycasing. The sealing encasement 71 is effective to prevent leakage orseeping of the high pressure relatively unprocessed raw feed (37, FIG.3) to the processed feed flowing through the HF array (37 a, FIG. 3) atrelatively lower operating pressures. This embodiment is useful under avariety of conditions. In one embodiment, a circular or ellipticalpressure vessel is useful with a relatively high pressure process fluidinside of the HFs and a relatively low pressure feed.

Water-Extraction/Water-Recovery System

In one embodiment, the HF panels are used in a system and process forwater-extraction/water-recovery. Water-extraction/water-recovery may beimportant in a variety of situations. Such situations include, but arenot necessarily limited to dialysis (removing water containing wastefrom blood in case of renal failure), recovering water from brinecomprising one or more soluble salt, extracting water from an organicsolution, and extracting water from a solution comprising radioactivecontamination.

Solutes having lower molecular weights generally produce solutionshaving a higher osmotic pressure. Solutes having higher molecularweights generally produce solutions having a lower osmotic pressure.Accordingly, it is generally more efficient to extract water fromsolutions having relatively low osmotic pressure.

Flow rates during water-extraction/water-recovery generally are lowerthan flow rates during power generation. In one embodiment, flow ratesduring water extraction/water-recovery are in liter/sec, m³/min orgallon/min. In large scale systems for water extraction, the flow ratemay be m³/sec.

In one embodiment, the HF panels are used to perform dialysis. In thisembodiment, the HF membrane is a microfiltration membrane having a poresize range of from 0.1 to 10 micrometers. In this embodiment, the flowrate typically will be in cc/min.

In one embodiment, the HF panels are used in a system to recover waterfrom brine (an aqueous solution comprising one or more soluble salts).In this embodiment, the HF panels comprise membranes of nanometer poresize, preferably less than 1 nanometer. In one embodiment, the HF panelsare used to extract water from a feed comprising relatively low salinitybrine. In one embodiment, the HF panels are used to extract water from afeed comprising 1% sodium chloride brine, which has an osmotic pressureof about 112 psi, using a process fluid comprising a 4% brine having anosmotic pressure of about 448 psi. In this embodiment, the permeateacross the membrane (or tie-line) is one unit volume. Accordingly: 2volumes of feed at 1% salinity leaves as 1 volume of permeate and 1volume of concentrated feed at 2% salinity; and, 1 volume of processfluid at 4% salinity leaves as 2 volumes of diluted process fluidcomprising the one volume of permeate, the diluted process fluid having2% salinity. In this embodiment, the driving osmotic force (LMCD) is 162psi.

In one embodiment, water is extracted from an organic solution. In oneembodiment, water is extracted from sugarcane juice containing 10%sugar. In one embodiment, the process fluid is 4% salinity brine. Infood processing application, extraction process could be the onlyrequired process, without the need for further treatment. The osmoticpressure of the sugar solution is only about 10% of the osmotic pressureof the sodium chloride solution. Accordingly, in one embodiment: 2volumes of feed comprising a sugar solution entering at a sugarconcentration of 10% would produce 1 volume of permeate (tie line) and1.0 volume of concentrated feed having a sugar concentration of 20%. Inone embodiment, 10 volumes of feed comprising a 1% sugar concentrationwould produce 1.0 volume of concentrated feed having a sugarconcentration of 20%. In this case, since the solution is very dilutedand contains food grade product, it would be economically prudent to usean invasive process such as reverse osmosis, as the first heatlessconcentration process, to concentrate the solution to 20% concentration,then followed by an extraction process to reach higher concentrations,which may require process feed at 6% salinity or higher. Extractedsaline water might be concentrated with available waste heat or in asolar pond and reused for concentrating more sugar solutions.

In all embodiments, economics dictate apparatus configuration andprocess feed flow and composition.

In one embodiment, water is extracted from solutions comprisingradioactive contamination. Advantageously, solutions comprisingradioactive contamination generally comprise solutes having highermolecular weights; accordingly, such solutions tend to have a relativelylow osmotic pressures. Radioactive contamination may take differentforms. In one embodiment, the radioactive contamination comprisesCesium-137.

Cesium-137 is a dangerous radioactive material generated by the nuclearfission of uranium-235. Cesium-137 is a soft, malleable, silvery whitemetal and melting point of 28.4° C. and a molecular weight of 136.907.The half-life of cesium-137 is 30 years. Cesium-137 decays by emissionof a beta particle, gamma rays and conversion to barium-137 m.Cesium-137 is a major contributor to the total radiation released duringnuclear accidents, as in case of Chernobyl and recentlyFukushima-Daiichi nuclear plant of Japan.

In one embodiment, water is extracted from natural water supplies(normally used for potable water if it contains less than 500 ppm ofdissolved solids) containing radioactive contamination. One cubic meterof water contaminated with Cesium-137 appears to contain just few gramsof Cesium-137 that have negligible osmotic effect. In one embodiment,relatively pure water is extracted from water contaminated withCesium-137, leaving concentrated Cesium-137. In one embodiment, theconcentrated Cesium-137 is flushed from the extractor, as needed. In oneembodiment, the extraction membranes are safely disposed, as needed.

In one embodiment, water is extracted (as permeate or tie-line) from aradioactive contaminated low salinity salt solution (for example 1% or10,000 ppm salt). In one embodiment, the radioactive contaminationcomprises Cesium-137. In one embodiment, 2 volumes of feed comprising a1% salinity brine comprising a given concentration of Cesium-137 isextracted to produce 1 volume of tie line and a concentrated radioactivefeed product comprising 1 volume of water at 2% salinity and twice theconcentration of Cesium-137. In one embodiment, 1 volume of processfluid at 4% salinity enters the lumens of the HF panels and leaves theHF lumens (plus the permeate or tie-line) as 2 volumes at of water at 2%salinity. In one embodiment, the volume of recycle (or storage)radioactive contaminated water leaving the extractor is decreased byusing a process fluid that has an even higher salinity. In oneembodiment, 2 volumes of radioactive contaminated water at 1% salinityis reduced to about ¼ volume of concentrated recycle radioactivecontaminated water at 8% salinity by using a process fluid (in the HFlumens) having a salinity of 4%. Such practice reduces the storagerequirements for radioactive contaminated water and associatedmaintenance In one embodiment, the process fluid has a salinity of: 3%or more; 4% or more; 5% or more; 6% or more; 7% or more; 8% or more; 9%or more; 10% or more; 11% or more; 12% or more; 13% or more; 14% ormore; 15% or more; 16% or more; 17% or more; 18% or more; 19% or more;20% or more.

Physics and Thermodynamics

The use of the membrane element is rooted in the field of physics andpertains to the development of a chemical engineering conceptual processdesign, presenting a new vision in the energy field. The followingdiscussion of basic physics and thermodynamics will assist inunderstanding the method and apparatus.

The first law of thermodynamics rules out the possibility ofconstructing a machine that can spontaneously create energy. However,the first law of thermodynamics does not rule out the possibility oftransferring energy from one form into another.

Internal energy (U) generalized differential form can be presented as:dU=TdS−pdV+μdN+φdQ+vdp+ψdm+ldA+  (Eq. 1)where, entropy S, volume V, amount of substance N, electric power Q,momentum p, mass m, area A, etc. are extensive properties andtemperature T, pressure p, chemical potential μ, electrical potential φ,velocity v, gravitational potential ψ, to surface tension l, etc. areenergy-conjugated intensive quantities.

This generalized relation is reduced to account for osmotic effect as:dU=TdS−pdV+Σ _(i)μ_(i) dN _(i)  (Eq. 2)

μ_(i) is the chemical potential of the i-th chemical component, joulesper mol.

N_(i) (or n_(i)) is the number of particles (or moles) of the i-thchemical component.

In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potentialthat measures the “useful” or process-initiating work obtainable from anisothermal, isobaric thermodynamic system. The Gibbs free energy is themaximum amount of non-expansion work that can be extracted from a closedsystem. This maximum can be attained only in a completely reversibleprocess.

Gibbs free energy, G_((T, p, N)) attained in a reversible process can bepresented in simplified form as: G=U+pV−TS. Expanding this relation in adifferential form, with substitution of Eq. 2

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{\mathbb{d}G} = {{\mathbb{d}U} + {\mathbb{d}\left( {p\; V} \right)} - {\mathbb{d}\left( {T\; S} \right)}}} \\{= {{T\;{\mathbb{d}S}} - {p\;{\mathbb{d}V}} + {\sum\limits_{i}{\mu_{i}{\mathbb{d}N_{i}}}} + {\mathbb{d}\left( {p\; V} \right)} - {\mathbb{d}\left( {T\; S} \right)}}} \\{= {{T{\mathbb{d}S}} - {p{\mathbb{d}V}} + {\sum\limits_{i}{\mu_{i}{\mathbb{d}N_{i}}}} + {p{\mathbb{d}V}} + {V{\mathbb{d}p}} - {S{\mathbb{d}T}} - {T{\mathbb{d}S}}}}\end{matrix} & \left( {{Eq}.\mspace{14mu} 3} \right)\end{matrix}$Eliminating opposite sign terms, osmotic effect in terms of Gibbs freeenergy is:dG=Vdp−SdT+Σ _(i)μ_(i) dN _(i)  (Eq. 4)Gibbs free energy when pressure and temperature are constant (dp=0 anddT=0), a condition for process reversibility, results in:dG=Σ _(i)μ_(i) dN _(i)  (Eq. 5)

To define the relation between pressure and chemical potential, thechemical potential in Eq. 6 is assumed to be negligible, then dG=Vdp,but since pV=nRT, from perfect gas equation of state, by substitution,dG=nRT dp/p. By integration between p_(o) and p gives:ΔG=G _(p) −G _(po) =nRT∫dp/p=nRT ln(p/p _(o)).For one mole (n=1) and in term of chemical potential given earlier byEq. 5μ=μ^(o) +RT Ln(p/p _(o))  (Eq. 6)Derivation of this relation in terms of activity coefficient,considering real solution results in;μ_(A)=μ_(A) *+RT Ln a _(A)  (Eq. 7)Then, osmotic pressure mathematical general form can be presented as:Δπ=Δp=RTΔC _(s)  (Eq. 8)The osmotic pressure π was originally proposed by Nobel Laureate Van'tHoff and modified to include Staverman's osmotic reflection coefficientto become;π=ΦicRT  (Eq. 9)Where:π=osmotic pressure or force imposed on the membrane given in bars, atm,psi, etc.Φ=Osmotic Reflection Coefficient (NaCl=0.93, CaCl²=0.86, Mg CaCl²=0.89,etc.),i=Ions concentration per dissociated solute molecule (Na⁺ and Cl⁻ions=2),c=molar concentration of the salt ions,R=gas constant (0.08314472 liter bar/(k·mol)),T=ambient temperature in absolute Kelvin degrees (20° C.+273°=293° K).

The average salinity of seawater is about 3.5% (35 gram/liter),comprising ocean salts as solute, mostly in the form of sodium chloride(NaCl). For simplicity of calculation, it is assumed that seawatercontains 35 grams NaCl/liter. The atomic weight of sodium is 23 grams.The atomic weight of chlorine is 35.5 grams, so the molecular weight ofNaCl is 58.5 grams. The number of NaCl moles in seawater is35/58.5=0.598 mol/liter and the osmotic pressure of seawater isπ=[0.93][2][0.598 mol/liter][0.08314 liter·bar/(k·mol)][293 K]=27.11 barSince one bar=100,000 Pascal (Pa) and one kilogram (force) per squarecentimeter (kg_(f)/m²)=98066.5 Pascal, computation of osmotic pressure,π and energy of seawater (SW_(E)) and lake brine (LB_(E)) can bepresented in several forms:π=[27.11×10⁵ Pa]/[98066.5 Pa/(kg_(f)/cm²)]=27.64 kg_(f)/cm²π=[27.64 kg_(f)/cm²][m/100 cm][1000 cm³/liter]=276.4 kg_(f)·m/literSW _(E)=[276.4 kg_(f)·m/liter][9.80665 Joule/kg_(f)·m]=2711Joule/liter=2.711 MJ/m³  a.SW _(E)=[2711 Joule/liter][1 cal/4.184 J][1 kcal/1000 cal]=0.6479kcal/liter  b.SW _(E)=[2711 Joule/liter][1000 liter/m³]=2.710 MJ/m³=0.751 kWh/m³  c.

For generating power substantially continuously, which typically is thecase with power generation systems, the theoretical potential powercapacity of this system is:[2.711 MJ/m³][1 m³/s][3600 s]=9.759×10⁹ J=[9.759×10⁹ W·s][h/3600s]=2,711 kWh  d.SW _(E)=[2,711 kWh][24 hrs/day][365 days/year]=23.75×10⁶ kWhannually.  e.

In the case of a hyper saline lake such as the Qattara Depression—Egypt,Chott El Jerid—Tunisia, Lake Torrens—Australia, or any typical naturalor manmade domain, the amount of average salt concentration can reachsaturation (359 gram/liter at 25 centigrade) mostly in the form ofsodium chloride (NaCl). Considering lake salinity is 33% (330gram/liter), then the lake brine osmotic pressure can be estimated as:π=[0.93][2][5.641 mol/liter][0.08314 liter·bar/(k·mol)]·[293 K]=255.593bar

For substantially continuous power generation, the theoretical potentialpower capacity of the lake brine (LB) of such system where; 1 W=J/s, 1W·s=J, 1 kWh=3.6×10⁶ J, is:LB _(E)=[25.559 MJ/m³][1 m³/s][3600 s]=[92.0124×10⁹J][1kWh/3.6×10⁶J]=25,559 kWhLB _(E)=[25,559 kWh][24 hrs/day][365 days/year]=223.897×10⁶ kWh/year,per 1 m³ per sec.

Regarding Induced Symbiotic Osmosis [ISO] membrane flux, the simplestequation to describe the relationship between osmotic, hydraulicpressures and water flux, J_(w) is based on calculating the log meanconcentration difference (“LMCD”). LMCD is a system driving force and itassists in realistic determination of equipment size and powergeneration. LMCD has been calculated for all design cases since it is asystem efficiency parameter, particularly when energy regenerationefficiency is debatable.J _(w) =AKp[ΦΔπ@ΔC _(lm) −ΔP]  (Eq. 10)Where J_(w) is water flux, Kp is the hydraulic permeability of themembrane, A is membrane area, Δπ is the difference in osmotic pressureson the two sides of the membrane, ΔP is the difference in hydrostaticpressure where negative values of J_(w) indicating reverse osmotic flow.Φ, reflective coefficient, ΔC_(lm) is log mean concentration difference(LMCD).

The calculated logarithmic mean concentration difference should be thesame as or less than the membrane's limited operating pressure. Thenumber of cells required in a particular power train can be determinedbased on: (a) the initial salinity of the feed and/or process fluid, (b)the operating pressures, and/or (c) a combination thereof. Thelogarithmic mean concentration difference may be reduced by increasingthe number of cells. The logarithmic mean concentration difference maybe increased by reducing the number of cells.

Concentration polarization results of accumulation of dissolved salt atthe membrane surface, creating a relatively high localized osmoticgradient. This relatively high localized osmotic gradient reduces normalosmotically driven permeate diffusion and hinders membrane flux, inaddition of blocking the flow pass. In general, membranes operating ininduced osmosis mode are less susceptible to this phenomenon due to thelow pressure imposed on membrane as compared with membranes in reverseosmosis service. In one embodiment, the feed is pretreated to removesuspended solids.

In one embodiment, membrane fouling and concentration polarizationphenomenon are reduced by one or more of the following:

-   -   i. Maintaining turbulence flow across and along membrane        surfaces preferably at a Reynolds' Number of 3,000 or more,        3,100 or more, 3,200 or more, 3,300 or more, 3,400 or more,        3,500 or more, preferably above 3,500. In one embodiment,        excessive use of pumping energy is avoided if the Reynolds'        Number is maintained at 6,000 or less. In one embodiment, the        Reynolds Number is maintained at less than 6,000. Reynolds        number is defined by the ratio of dynamic pressure (ρu²) and        shearing stress (μu/L) and expressed in mathematical function        as:        Re=(ρu ²)/(μu/L)=ρuL/μ  (Eq. 11)        -   Where;            -   a. Re=Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)            -   b. ρ=density (kg/m³, lb_(m)/ft³)            -   c. u=velocity cross section area of the duct or pipe                (m/s, ft/s)            -   d. μ=dynamic viscosity (Ns/m², lb_(m)/s ft)            -   e. L=characteristic length (m, ft) also known as the                hydraulic diameter, d_(h) for ducts, passageways,                annuli, etc.                -   Where d_(h)=(4) (cross sectional area of                    duct)/wetted perimeter            -   f. v=kinematic viscosity (m²/s, ft²/s)    -   ii. Side-mounting electromechanical vibrators on membrane array        encasements. The electromechanical vibrators may operate at any        effective frequency. In one embodiment, the electromechanical        vibrators operate intermittently or continuously at a vibration        of about 30 Hertz or more, 35 Hertz or more, 40 Hertz or more,        45 Hertz or more, 50 Hertz or more, 55 Hertz or more, 60 Hertz        or more, 65 Hertz or more, or 70 Hertz. The electromechanical        vibrators may travel any effective distance. In one embodiment,        the electromechanical vibrators travel a distance of 3 mm or        more, 3.5 mm or more, 4 mm or more, 4.5 mm or more, 5 mm or        more, 5.5 mm or more, or 6 mm;    -   iii. Minimizing contact points and associated laminar or        stagnant flow between fibers, which can produce salt build up        between contacting fibers, by relatively loosely mounting the        semipermeable membranes. In one embodiment hollow fibers are        relatively loosely packed and retained within a frame;    -   iv. Regularly flushing the membranes with desalinated fluid or        water upon dropping of power generation or desalination quality.        Flushing may occur at substantially any designated power drop.        In one embodiment, flushing occurs at power drops of 1% or more,        2% or more, 3% or more 4% or more, 5% or more, 6% or more, 7% or        more, 8% or more, 9% or more, or 10%;    -   v. Using a hydrophilic semipermeable membrane such as cellulose        acetate which tends to avoid formation of foreign matter on the        membrane surface and tends to mitigate concentration        polarization.    -   vi. Using surfactants in enclosed middle cells;    -   vii. Continuously on-line monitoring salinity changes within        each loop. In one embodiment, salinity is automatically adjusted        by injecting or withdrawing saline solution. In one embodiment,        salinity is adjusted by adding water having a desired salinity.    -   viii. Saving power and making impeding fouling build up on the        semipermeable membrane, in one embodiment, by using dual        diaphragm pumping systems.

Persons of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that manymodifications may be made to the foregoing description. The embodimentsdescribed herein are meant to be illustrative only and should not betaken as limiting the invention, which will be defined in the claims.

I claim:
 1. A membrane element consisting of: a hollow fiber stack (HFstack) comprising a plurality of substantially equally spaced hollowfibers (HFs) comprising multiple alternate rows of HFs comprising firstends extending through and beyond one contact structure comprising solidthermoset material and opposed ends extending through and beyond anopposed contact structure comprising solid thermoset material, each HFconsisting of a hydrophilic semipermeable membrane defining an elongatedlumen, each HF comprising a portion that extends from the one contactstructure to the opposed contact structure, wherein the HFs in alternaterows are aligned with the spaces in adjacent rows, forming a hexagonalpattern comprising repeating adjacent and/overlapping hexagons, whereineach hexagon comprises a central hollow fiber (central HF) surrounded bysix immediately adjacent HFs defining a hexagonal perimeter comprisingsix sides, the six immediately adjacent HFs being substantially equallyspaced from one another and substantially equally spaced from thecentral hollow fiber, wherein the spacing is adapted to maintain aReynolds' number of about 3000 or more, and wherein the hydrophilicsemipermeable membrane is adapted to achieve salt rejection of 98.5% ormore and exhibits a surface tension of 35 dynes/cm or more; the membraneelement being adapted to be mounted in a separate frame comprising aheader comprising a first fluid conduit therethrough into which thefirst ends empty and an opposed header comprising an opposed conduitinto which the opposed ends empty, the membrane element mounted in theframe being adapted to be submersed in a first fluid comprising a feedflowing crosswise through the HF stack substantially perpendicular tothe portion of the HFs and for induced symbiotic osmosis between lumensof the plurality of substantially equally spaced HFs and the firstfluid, the membrane element having sufficient mechanical integrity whenmounted in the frame and submersed in the first fluid to sustainturbulence flow at the Reynolds' Number of about 3,000 or more and tomaintain said mechanical integrity at feed pumping pressures of 30 barsor higher.
 2. The membrane element of claim 1 wherein the one contactstructure and the opposed contact structure comprise thermoset materialselected from the group consisting of epoxy, polyurethane, andcombinations thereof.
 3. The membrane element of claim 1 wherein thehollow fiber stack has a depth of from 30 mm to 80 mm.
 4. The membraneelement of claim 1 wherein the solid thermoset material is selected fromthe group consisting of epoxy resin, polyurethane, and combinationsthereof.
 5. A hollow fiber panel (HF panel) comprising a membraneelement, the HF panel comprising: fiber reinforced plastic rectangularframe comprising one pair of opposed edges comprising a first header andan opposed header defining opposed parallel edges of the fiberreinforced plastic rectangular frame, the first header and opposedheader having a header longitudinal axis, the first header comprising afirst fluid conduit therethrough along the header longitudinal axis andthe opposed header comprising an opposed fluid conduit therethroughalong the header longitudinal axis; wherein respective ends of the firstheader and the opposed header mechanically communicate with respectiveends of a first support and an opposed support to form another pair ofopposed parallel edges of the fiber reinforced plastic rectangular frameoriented substantially perpendicular to the one pair of opposed paralleledges, thereby forming the fiber reinforced plastic rectangular framedefining a rectangular opening, the rectangular opening defining a feedflowpath crosswise through the HF stack and substantially perpendicularto the portion of the HFs, wherein the feed flowpath also issubstantially perpendicular to the header longitudinal axis; themembrane element comprising a hollow fiber stack (HF stack) comprising aplurality of substantially equally spaced hollow fibers (HFs), whereineach hollow fiber (HF) consists of a hydrophilic semipermeable membranedefining an elongated lumen, the HFs comprising a portion that extendsfrom one contact structure mounted in the first header in fluidcommunication with the first fluid conduit across the rectangularopening to an opposed contact structure mounted in the opposed header influid communication with the opposed fluid conduit, wherein the hollowfiber panel is effective for induced symbiotic osmosis between lumens ofthe plurality of substantially equally spaced HFs and to sustain aturbulence flow of a feed flowing along the feed path and crosswisethrough the HF stack and substantially perpendicular to the portion ofthe HFs at a pressure of 30 bars or higher at a Reynolds' Number ofabout 3,000 or more, the substantially equally spaced HFs comprisingmultiple rows of HFs having first ends extending through and beyond theone contact structure and into the first fluid conduit and opposed endsextending through and beyond the opposed contact structure and into anopposed fluid conduit, wherein the one contact structure and the opposedcontact structure have a width of 3 meters or less and the hollow fiberstack occupies about 75% of the width of the contact structure, whereinthe HFs in alternate rows are aligned with the spaces in adjacent rows,forming a hexagonal pattern comprising repeating adjacentand/overlapping hexagons, wherein each hexagon comprises a centralhollow fiber (central HF) surrounded by six immediately adjacent HFsdefining a hexagonal perimeter comprising six sides, the six immediatelyadjacent HFs being substantially equally spaced from one another andsubstantially equally spaced from the central hollow fiber, and whereinthe hydrophilic semipermeable membrane is adapted to achieve saltrejection of 98.5% or more and exhibits a surface tension of 35 dynes/cmor more; wherein the fiber reinforced plastic rectangular framemaintains mechanical integrity at feed pressures of 30 bars or higher.6. The HF panel of claim 5 wherein the frame further comprises a bafflecomprising a backing comprising protrusions extending therefrom, theprotrusions being adapted to extend through and retain the plurality ofhollow fibers in a substantially equally spaced configuration.
 7. The HFpanel of claim 6 wherein the one contact structure and the opposedcontact structure comprise thermoset material selected from the groupconsisting of epoxy resin, polyurethane, and combinations thereof. 8.The HF panel of claim 6 wherein one or both of the first header and theopposed header are solid and the respective fluid conduit comprises abore therethrough.
 9. The HF panel of claim 5 wherein the one contactstructure and the opposed contact structure comprise solid thermosetmaterial selected from the group consisting of epoxy, polyurethane, andcombinations thereof.
 10. The HF panel of claim 5 wherein the HFs havean outer diameter (Do) of 2 mm, and the contact structures engage fromabout 4 to about 6 rows of HFs per 10 mm of the total stack depth. 11.The HF panel of claim 5 wherein the HFs have an outer diameter (Do) of 1mm, and the contact structures engage from about 9 to about 12 rows ofHFs per 10 mm of the total stack depth.
 12. The HF panel of claim 5wherein the HFs have an outer diameter (Do) of less than 0.5 mm, and thecontact structures engage from about 16 to 20 rows of HFs per 10 mm ofthe total stack depth.
 13. The HF panel of claim 5 wherein one or bothof the first header and the opposed header is solid and the respectivefluid conduit comprises a bore therethrough.
 14. The HF panel of claim 5wherein the hollow fiber stack has a depth of from 30 mm to 80 mm. 15.An array comprising the hollow fiber panels (HF panels) comprising themembrane elements, the array comprising: a plurality of pairs of the HFpanels comprising a fiber reinforced plastic rectangular framecomprising one pair of opposed edges comprising a header and an opposedheader defining opposed parallel edges of the fiber reinforced plasticrectangular frame, the first header and opposed header having a headerlongitudinal axis, the first header comprising a first fluid conduittherethrough along the header longitudinal axis and the opposed headercomprising an opposed fluid conduit therethrough along the headerlongitudinal axis, wherein respective ends of the header and the opposedheader mechanically communicate with respective ends of a support and anopposed support to form another pair of opposed parallel edges of thefiber reinforced plastic rectangular frame oriented substantiallyperpendicular to the one pair of opposed parallel edges, thereby formingthe fiber reinforced plastic rectangular frame defining a rectangularopening, the rectangular opening defining a feed flowpath crosswisethrough the HF stack and substantially perpendicular to the portion ofthe HFs, wherein the feed flowpath is substantially perpendicular to theheader longitudinal axis; the HF panels each comprising the membraneelement comprising a hollow fiber stack (HF stack) comprising aplurality of substantially equally spaced hollow fibers (HFs), whereineach hollow fiber (HF) consists of a hydrophilic semipermeable membranedefining an elongated lumen, the HFs comprising a portion that extendsfrom one contact structure mounted in the first header in fluidcommunication with the first fluid conduit across the rectangularopening to an opposed contact structure mounted in the opposed header influid communication with the opposed fluid conduit, wherein the hollowfiber panel is effective for induced symbiotic osmosis between lumens ofthe plurality of substantially equally spaced HFs and to sustain aturbulence flow of a feed flowing along the feed path and crosswisethrough the HF stack and substantially perpendicular to the portion ofthe HFs at a Reynolds' Number of about 3,000 or more, the HFs comprisingfirst ends—extending through and beyond the one contact structure andopposed ends extending through and beyond the opposed contact structure,wherein the first ends of the plurality of substantially equally spacedHFs fluidly communicate with the first fluid conduit and the opposedends of the plurality of substantially equally spaced HFs fluidlycommunicate with the opposed fluid conduit, wherein the one contactstructure and the opposed contact structure have a width of 3 meters orless, the hollow fiber stack occupies about 75% of the width of thecontact structure, and wherein each hexagon comprises a central hollowfiber (central HF) surrounded by six immediately adjacent HFs defining ahexagonal perimeter comprising six sides, the six immediately adjacentHFs being substantially equally spaced from one another andsubstantially equally spaced from the central hollow fiber; thehydrophilic semipermeable membranes being adapted to achieve saltrejection of 98.5% or more and exhibiting a surface tension of 35dynes/cm or more; the fiber reinforced plastic HF panels being adaptedto maintain mechanical integrity at feed pressures of 30 bars or higher.16. The array of claim 15, the frame further comprising a bafflecomprising a backing comprising protrusions extending therefrom, theprotrusions being adapted to extend through and retain the plurality ofhollow fibers substantially equally spaced within the frame.
 17. Thearray of claim 16 wherein the plurality of substantially equally spacedhollow fibers in one hollow fiber panel in the pair are orientedperpendicular to the plurality of hollow fibers of the other hollowfiber panel in the pair.
 18. The array of claim 15 wherein the pluralityof substantially equally spaced hollow fibers in one hollow fiber panelin the pair are oriented perpendicular to the plurality of hollow fibersof the other hollow fiber panel in the pair.
 19. The array of claim 15wherein the one contact structure and the opposed contact structurecomprise thermoset material selected from the group consisting of epoxyresin, polyurethane, and combinations thereof.
 20. The array of claim 19wherein the thermoset material is solid thermoset material.
 21. Thearray of claim 15 wherein the hollow fiber stack has a depth of from 30mm to 80 mm.